We live in a day when rumors and conspiracies mingle with reality to cause confusion, concern, and contention—Covid-19 is not real, human trafficking is on the rise, the 2020 election was stolen, vaccines cause autism, all of the media is covering something up, “they” want to wipe religion from the public square, and on and on. The promoters of such falsehoods invert reality by decrying fact verification and calling accurate information “fake” or a “hoax.” Rumors and lies have been spread throughout history, but current conspiracies about the pandemic and American politics now cause pain, suffering, and death. They also strain interpersonal relationships among family, friends, and neighbors.
Latter-day Saints should not be surprised to encounter errors and falsehoods—Jesus predicted future times marked by false prophets, deception, and iniquity. But despite ample warning, the Saints are often tricked—the state of Utah (with a large but not entire population of Latter-day Saints) has proven itself as the “fraud capital of the United States.” Our current environment of misinformation prompted Church leaders to warn members about unreliable information and conspiracy theories.
Rumors circulate because their promoters benefit from chaos and division—politicians and their parties raise more money in an “us against them” environment, cable news shows gain more attention (and advertising dollars) when inflammatory guests debate “both sides,” and people who feel passed over and left out take solace in the idea that a simple story explains all the troubles.
To quash rumors and conspiracy theories, we need to change how we think and listen and speak. We need to understand how conspiracy theories “work” so that we can detect them when we observe their oversimplifying into “either/or” options and avoiding of actual evidence. We can watch for warning signs and work together to develop habits of good thinking and conversation.
How Conspiracy Theories Work
A conspiracy theory is a belief that some secret but influential organization is behind the events and circumstances that we see. In national and world histories, the alleged conspirators are secret brotherhoods, wealthy elite, unnamed government agencies, or a massive “deep state.” In Church history the alleged conspirators might be the Danites, a big sugar trust, the Correlation Department, or modern “Gadianton robbers.” The conspiracy may involve covering up a single event or it may extend to an entire organization or system. In this view, history is caused by scheming people, the true facts are dark and dirty, and there is always something sinister lurking below the surface.
Conspiracy theories appeal to the hearer’s fear and pride—“you are smart and good but someone evil is hiding things from you to harm you.” They offer the same neurological satisfaction of winning a game and can function like a spiritual worldview.
Conspiracy theories avoid evidence by using a tactic called “anomaly hunting.” An anomaly is something that is different from what is standard, expected, or assumed to be common sense. The objective in hunting for anomalies is not to find truth. Rather the promoter merely tries to point out contradictions or raise questions. Typically, the person presents a tone of openness or curiosity. “I’m not trying to be critical,” he says, “but have you noticed this weird thing? It’s too much to be a coincidence.” Frequently they are presented softly, with encouragement to “think for yourself” and “find the hidden patterns.”
Conspiracy theories are circular in that any evidence presented to counter the conspiracy gets twisted into “part of the plot to make people think they are not covering it up.” They give the illusion of thinking without demonstrating any analysis. They close our minds when we need our minds to be open to inspiration of the Holy Ghost.
Pause, and Think
Rumors and conspiracy theories spread so quickly on the internet because the online environment conditions us to scroll quickly and react with emotion while liking and sharing, without pausing to think. This plays off our natural tendency to trust others, which is helpful in a functioning society. We also bring mental limitations—we are more likely to remember things that have a story or pattern, our minds prefer information that is easier to process, we remember things that align with what we already believe (confirmation bias) and ignore information that runs counter to our existing beliefs (motivated reasoning).
Knowing these limitations, we should cultivate a habit of thinking the second thought. Imagine that we have two systems for thinking: a first that works quickly and reflexively and a second that concentrates and makes choices. To activate the second, we must pause and consciously ask, “Is this real?” (see Alma 32:35). This process is embodied in the old adages to “measure twice, cut once” or to “trust but verify.” Develop the habit of pausing to think the second thought.
More than Either/Or
Rumors and conspiracy theories oversimplify the world. They focus on some things, while omitting the full picture and rarely seeing things in all relevant contexts. The most common way of oversimplifying past and current issues is to reduce them to simple “either/or” pairs of opposites—good or evil, Democrats or Republicans, Black citizens or white police. It is true that all of the things in the previous sentence exist in our society, but they are not the only things – there is so much more!
The general strategy to improve oversimplified thinking involves replacing the “or” with “and.” There are more than two sides to every story, and it is okay to hold two ideas at the same time. One way to move beyond binary thinking is to look for a more temperate middle point between the two apparent extremes (a middle point need not lie exactly in the center of the two extremes). A second way to dissolve a dualism is to accept both, without having to accept a false choice between only two options. Third, sometimes we can add to the opposites to see both and by adding other important concepts, including “I don’t know (and that’s okay)” and “the information is incomplete” and “there is conflicting information” and “things have changed.” Doing this means that we need to become comfortable with things that seem nuanced and contradictory and paradoxical. Finally, in thinking about history and human experience, it is often most useful to think in terms of good, better, and best.
Show me the Evidence
The best antidote to rumors and conspiracy theories is evidence. Rumors resist evidence by appealing instead to:
- authority or power (by quoting a long-deceased general authority figure who “said so”),
- tradition (“this is the way it’s always been done”),
- common sense (“as everybody knows”),
- nature (“that’s the way things are”), or
- fear of consequences (“if we allow this, then that will surely follow”).
All evidence is not equal. The best claims are supported by solid evidence that comes from informed (and cited) sources. Accurate information does not just appear in a single place but can be corroborated in multiple sources. You will have to identify what we know and what we don’t know as well as how we know what we know. Careful evaluation of evidence considers who is telling the story and why.
Pause, resist oversimplification, and ask to “Show me the evidence.”
You Try It
Sniff Tests
In conversations, watch out for these warning signs of poor thinking.
- “Something dark connects them!” Conspiracy thinking lazily avoids the use of evidence, telling stories that appeal instead to fear or pride.
- “True facts are dark and insidious.” If events happen only after midnight or in a darkened alley or in secret meetings of conspiratorial characters, then you need to ask for evidence.
- Only two options or sides. Beware of stories (or politicians or news channels) that force you to choose between only two options—myth or reality, fact or fiction. Such false balances make for seductive clickbait, but they distort the past and the present.
- No evidence. Evidence is required. There must be citations to reliable sources and evidence.
- A single piece of evidence. Be wary of someone who uses only a single source to the exclusion of all other available and relevant sources.
- Narrowly selected evidence. Sometimes authors distort by selecting a few facts to emphasize while ignoring and omitting others. Authors who employ this technique typically emphasize loudly that their “facts” are “correct.” For example, a friend might share quotes by Ezra Taft Benson about defending the Constitution but omit the current counsel by President Dallin H. Oaks to do so by peacefully accepting the results of elections.
- A long list of “facts.” Anomaly hunters and conspiracy theorists pile up facts in order to overwhelm, a fallacy known as proof by verbosity. If you cannot or will not respond to every item, they will declare victory.
Key Concepts
Use these good habits when speaking and listening with family and friends.
- Agree not to use oversimplifying language such as “the Right,” “the Left,” “both sides,” “the media.”
- Change “or” to “and” by looking to the middle of two extremes, accept both options, consider more than just two options, and differentiate between good, better, and best.
- Investigate your own understanding and assumptions.
- Identify what we know and what we don’t (and accept that it’s okay when we don’t know everything).
- Trace rumors and stories and quotes to sources; then evaluate the reliability of the sources.
- Look for multiple sources, perspectives, and explanations (it’s a long story).
Online Tools for Verifying Information
The First Amendment protects the freedom of the press (as well as religion) because responsible journalism is necessary to a free and functioning society (see this helpful diagram of media organizations based on both political leanings and source reliability).
Several websites monitor hoaxes, urban legends, and scams, including Snopes and Hoax Slayer.
If the information is politicized, use political fact-checking sites, such as the Associated Press’s fact-checking website, the Annenberg Public Policy Center’s FactCheck, Politifact, or the Washington Post’s Fact Checker.
Watchdog sites are generally suspicious of the thing they watch. Quack Watch debunks health-related frauds, myths, and misconduct. Source Watch tracks public-relations firms, think tanks, and industry-funded organizations that seek to influence public opinion and policy.
For more on how to structure responses to misinformation see the Debunking Handbook and the European Commission’s page on Identifying Conspiracy Theories.
Published at From the Desk of Kurt Manwaring, January 4, 2021.
Sponsored by BYU Studies—Historian Keith Erekson takes readers behind the scenes of the Church History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah.
If you want to learn more, check out “A New Era of Research Access in the Church History Library” in the Oct. 2020 edition of the Journal of Mormon History.
What are your job duties as director of the Church History Library?
Keith Erekson: As director of the Church History Library, I oversee the Church’s record keeping activities. The library is the official archive of the Church, so we are charged with gathering records of official actions, from scripture editions to missionary work to temple construction to local units.
Our archival, manuscript, and print collections are stored in more than two dozen locations around the world. The library’s staff include talented archivists, librarians, records managers, writers, editors, technology specialists, and missionaries who all contribute to the work of collecting, describing, and facilitating appropriate access to the Church’s worldwide collections.
How many questions does the Church History Library answer from online patron submissions?
Keith Erekson: We receive between 300 and 400 questions each month from public patrons. We also field between 200 and 300 requests each month to digitize materials in our collection. We maintain ongoing consultative conversations with dozens of current researchers.
What does SPC mean?
Keith Erekson: The acronym captures a few of the most significant content-based reasons for limiting access to materials in our collection—the contents may describe “sacred” ordinances or experiences, may contain “private” information about individual identities or living persons, or may report information generated in “confidential” settings such as disciplinary councils or meetings of Church leaders.
Why are materials produced by General Authorities often restricted?
Keith Erekson: The materials produced by General Authorities routinely contain information that is sacred, private, and confidential.
By nature of their calling and assignments, General Authorities regularly participate in confidential planning about current and future activities, counsel with individual members about private concerns, and hear about and witness sacred events.
When will the journal of William Clayton be made available and why is it a focus of so much curiosity?
Keith Erekson: We have not established a release date for the journals, but they are in process and will be published after the Joseph Smith Papers wrap up in the next few years.
The journals are significant because they contain contemporary information about plural marriage in Nauvoo in the 1840s, both of Clayton and of Joseph Smith, for whom Clayton served as a clerk at the time. Clayton’s journals also served as an important source for completing Joseph Smith’s manuscript history.
I think the journals are also of interest because they have not previously been available in their entirety, similar to the recent release of Nauvoo Relief Society Minute Book and the minutes of the Council of Fifty.
How did Mark Hoffman’s forgeries affect restricted materials at the Church History Library?
Keith Erekson: Mark Hoffman’s forgeries provided a wake-up call to all professions involved in historical work as he succeeded in deceiving historians, handwriting experts, archivists, document dealers, and criminal forensic document analysts in numerous private and public institutions throughout the country.
The most immediate public impact of the forgeries for the Church collections involved the establishment of a formal access policy.
Internally, the forgeries helped shape thinking about security, acquisitions, and ongoing work activities.
How many sources cited in the Saints series are available to the general public?
Keith Erekson: Every source cited in Saints that is 1) part of our collection and 2) not under copyright to someone else has been digitized, placed in the online catalog, and linked to the endnotes of the electronic version in the Gospel Library App and on the Church’s website.
How does access in the Church History Library compare to 10 years ago? 20 years ago?
Keith Erekson: The last 10–15 years have witnessed a revolution in almost all aspects of our work. We began to store records around the world and systematically digitize our collections. We launched and then upgraded our online catalog to deliver digital images, audio, and video to all interested users.
We released many significant documents from the collection through the Joseph Smith Papers and the Church Historian’s Press. Simply stated, more materials now are accessible to more people in more places than ever before.
What is “pajamalot”?
Keith Erekson: A variety of factors converged in the 1970s to make the Church’s historical collections more accessible than in previous times. Other developments in the 1980s, including the Hofmann forgeries mentioned above, again prompted limitations on access for a while, causing one historian to describe the 1970s as a “Camelot” era and lament its passing.
I coined the term “pajamalot” to counter this wistfulness for an imagined bygone day. The developments of our present era now allow unprecedented access for people working from the convenience of their own homes at any hour.
What innovations would you like to see the Church History Library work on next?
Keith Erekson: We always have an eye to improvements to make in the short- and long-term future. We estimate that we have digitized about 5% of our holdings, so we are working to expand and accelerate that work. Many of our records are in languages other than English, so we are developing human and technological means to increase what we review and release. We continue to collect records as the work of the Church expands across the earth.
“What can I do with a history degree?” It is a question I fielded from thousands of students while I served as a faculty advisor in our university history program. Now that I direct an institution that actually hires people with history degrees, the question comes from job seekers as well as their parents, grandparents, and spouses.
Here’s the best, most honest answer I can give: A history degree is a wonderful way to begin a career and a terrible place to end it. In the current professional landscape and job market, you should plan on an advanced degree from the outset. Don’t earn a PhD and then look for alternatives; identify what you want to do and follow a pathway to the destination. With this approach, you’ll be better able to position yourself for successful learning experiences along the way.
Rather than thinking about career options as “in the academy” or “alternatives,” it’s more helpful to consider the broad field of history as a large family, like engineering or medicine, with many sub-specialties–teaching, archives, museums, preservation, publishing, and so on. Specialties within the history family offer a host of fulfilling careers, most* of which require an advanced degree with a targeted specialization. Starting salaries range from $30,000 to $55,000. The American Historical Association hosts a webpage of career resources. The history department at the University of Illinois maintains a list of famous history majors.
Here are some of the most popular specialties within the history family, sorted by levels of required education:
1. A Bachelor’s Degree + State Certification
- Elementary or secondary school teacher. Certification may be obtained as part of an undergraduate program or through a separate process after graduation. Requirements are defined by individual states.
2. A Master’s Degree with a Field-Specific Specialty
- Librarian. Complete a masters of library and information studies/sciences (MLIS) for diverse opportunities in public, school, and private libraries.
- Archivist. Complete a master’s degree in public history or library science and then obtain professional certification through the Academy of American Archivists; additional certificates are available from the Society of American Archivists.
- Museum curator, registrar, or educator. A master’s degree in museum studies provides a broad introduction to history, art, and science museums.
- Historic preservation. Look for a master’s-level program that introduces diverse and highly specialized work with cultural resource management, architectural history, landscape history, urban planning, geographic information systems, or archeology. Some public history programs have a preservation concentration.
- Artifact conservation. Look for a program and an apprenticeship that introduces highly specialized work with rare books, paper documents, photographs, textiles, artwork.
- Editing and publishing. Opportunities exist for historical documentary editing as well as scholarly publishing (university presses).
3. A Doctoral Degree
- Private secondary school teacher. Private schools increasingly hire more educated historians to bring prestige to their offerings; state certification still required.
- Community college faculty. Will carry a large course load, publishing may be optional.
- University professor. Advancement will depend on scholarly research contributions, also expect to teach and carry out service within the university administration.
- Researcher/writer. Many federal agencies hire historians to prepare internal analyses and briefings; develop an expertise in military, political, diplomatic, or policy history.
- Contract work. Historians may be hired to research, write, consult, interpret, testify in courtrooms, film and television, gaming, advertising; a handful of large firms predominate but individual contractors also operate.
4. Professional Degree in Another Field
- Lawyer. Undergraduate training in history provides a foundation in evidence and argumentation; many undergraduate programs offer a pre-law concentration.
- Physician. Undergraduate training in history provides empathy and an understanding of cultures that fosters good bedside manners; pre-med coursework in the sciences required.
* A bachelor’s degree in history can open the door to internships or temporary positions for which an advanced degree will be required for professional advancement. The skills obtained in a history bachelor’s program may also be applied in other fields such as research analysis, hospitality, human resources, office administration, and banking.
At a campaign rally in Arizona, Utah Senator Mike Lee tried to compare Donald Trump to the book of Mormon figure Captain Moroni:
Beginning at 0:26, Lee’s comments are: “To my Mormon friends, my Latter-day Saint friends. Think of him as Captain Moroni. He seeks not power, but to pull it down. He seeks not the praise of the world or the fake news, but he seeks the well-being and the peace of the American people.” (KUTV)
The practice of drawing comparisons is very common in public life—we regularly compare presidents, wars, and economic downturns. Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints often use the terms “apply” or “liken” to describe the process of making an analogy from a scripture passage or historical story to our present experience.
Despite being a common practice, the art and craft of analogy making is frequently muddled. It is helpful to think of analogies as things that must be built carefully. We must first define categories for comparing. Next, we identify correct information about the things we want to compare for each category. Then we compare the information, testing to be sure that the comparisons are valid.
How to Build a Sound Analogy
1. Define categories for comparing.
2. Identify correct information to compare.
3. Ensure that each comparison is valid.
Senator Lee’s attempt at an analogy does not make it through the first step. He loosely identifies categories, but then he simply turns the categories into assertions of his position. The Senator provides no information about the activities of Captain Moroni or Donald Trump as the evidence for his comparison (step 2) so we have no way to verify that his comparison is valid (step 3).
Lee’s categories come loosely from paraphrasing Alma 60:36, which records these words from Moroni: “I seek not for power, but to pull it down. I seek not for honor of the world, but for the glory of my God, and the freedom and welfare of my country.” When observing analogies, always pay attention to the things omitted. Why does the Senator leave out interest in “the glory of my God” from his endorsement of President Trump? Also look for counter evidence—is there also evidence for seeking power or seeking the honor of the world?
Because Senator Lee did not finish the work of making a sound comparison, here is a tool you can use to complete all three steps! I’ve provided some information to get things started, but I’ve left some things blank for you to continue the work. For evidence about Captain Moroni’s life, see Alma 48:11-18 and Alma 43-62 generally. As you supply information, verify that your information is correct and verifiable in documented sources.
Good luck! May your analogies ever be sound, and may you never be fooled by those who make incomplete comparisons!
| Categories | Captain Moroni | Donald Trump |
| Seeks not for power | –Yielded command of the army to live in peace (Alma 62:43) | [Insert evidence here] |
| Seeks for power | –No evidence in Alma 43-62 | –Stated on multiple occasions he may not accept the results of the election or leave office if he loses (source) –Hosted a military parade with tanks to demonstrate power (source) –Frequently praises authoritarian rulers (source) |
| Seeks to pull down power | –Worked with allies to remove king men (Alma 62) | [Insert evidence here] |
| Seeks not for honor of the world | [Insert evidence here] | [Insert evidence here] |
| Seeks for praise of the world | –No evidence in Alma 43-62 | –Obsessed with TV ratings (source) –Expects praise in exchange for federal disaster assistance (source) |
| Seeks the glory of God | –His Title of Liberty opens with remembrance of God (Alma 46:12) | –Rarely attends church (source) –Mocks the faith of Latter-day Saints and others (source) –Posed for a photo-shoot at a church (source) |
| Seeks the well-being of people | –Prepared for war by building forts (Alma 48:8-9) –Led armies in defense of his people (Alma 43-62) | –Ignored scientific evidence to hold rallies that likely killed an estimated 700 people (source) –Never served in the military, despite multiple opportunities (source) |
The October 2020 issue of the Journal of Mormon History features a forum on archival access, with an article I wrote about access in the Church History Library.
My article traces the history of access in the Church’s collection, explains all of the factors that go into making access designations, and describes recent changes that make our current era the best time for researching the history of the church:
Older researchers sometimes speak wistfully of a bygone era of research in the 1970s, but perhaps those fading memories of “Camelot” can be replaced with the current benefits of “pajamalot.” Our present era allows unprecedented access for researchers working from the convenience of their own homes at any hour of the day.
Erekson, “A New Era of Research Access,” p. 129.
Full article citation: Keith A. Erekson, “A New Era of Research Access in the Church History Library,” Journal of Mormon History 46, no. 4 (2020): 117–29, https://doi.org/10.5406/jmormhist.46.4.0117.
Episode Summary: Keith Erekson is the director of the Library Division of the Church History Department. In this episode Keith explains a conflict between members of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Keith also describes how the First Presidency was reorganized after the disunity was resolved.
Listen to Episode 37: To the Throne of Grace.
